Vulnerability of Horticultural Production to Climate Change and Significance of Weather Forecasting

P K Ray

Horticulture Department

Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa - 848 125

Horticulture crops, in general, are more knowledge and capital intensive than staple crops. Today horticulture in the country is a more vibrant and dynamic sector than ever before. It contributes nearly 30% of the agricultural GDP. Annual production of 81.28 million tonnes of fruits, 162.18 million tonnes of vegetables and 1.73 million tonnes of loose flowers (NHB, 2013) have to be increased substantially to cope with increasing demand of these commodities due to increasing population and expanding domestic and external markets. Short-term growth and long-term viability of any sector are critically dependent on access to technical knowledge, the ability to adapt that knowledge to local conditions and the flexibility to develop new production systems as market conditions change. Successful production of a horticultural crop depends on understanding of various factors affecting plant growth, fruiting, and manipulation of these factors for higher productivity and improved quality cultural activities. 

Climate change

   There are growing evidences to show that climate change has already affected agricultural productivity and will put increasing pressure on agriculture in the coming decades. Record breaking extreme weather events in the recent past different parts of the world offered a glimpse of the challenges climate change would bring. Analysis of recorded climatic data sets clearly indicates that there has been a 0.3^oC to 0.6^oC warming of earth surface since the late 19^th century. The average global temperature has increased by 0.8⁰C in the past 100 years and is expected to rise by 1.8^oC to 4.0^oC by the year 2100. For Indian region (South Asia), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted 0.5 to 1.2⁰C rise in temperature by 2020, 0.88 to 3.16⁰C by 2050 and 1.56 to 5.44⁰C by 2080, depending on the scenario of future development. The atmospheric warming will also be associated with changes with rainfall patterns, increased frequency of extreme events of drought, frost and flooding. Since the late 1970s, there have been increases in the percentage of the globe experiencing extreme drought or extreme moisture surplus.

   The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that by 2050, mean temperatures around the planet may rise by between 2 and 5°C or more and atmospheric CO₂ concentration are likely to be > 550 ppm (cf. 380 ppm at present). Tropical and semitropical climates in particular are expected to experience dramatic increases in temperatures, as well as more variation in rainfall. Of serious concern is the fact that most of the world’s low-income families dependent on agriculture live in vulnerable areas, namely in Asia and Africa. Farmers having small land holdings in India will need to adapt to higher temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns. In addition, climate variability will likely cut into global food production, exacerbating the existing problems of poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition. Furthermore, the greenhouse gas emissions are once again rising rapidly, making the climate change challenge to food security much greater.

      In general, alterations in our climate are governed by a complex system of atmospheric and oceanic processes and their interactions. In the context of crop production, relevant atmospheric processes consist of losses in beneficial stratospheric ozone (O₃) concentration and increasing concentrations of the surface-layer trace gases, including atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and sulphur dioxide (SO₂). Surface level O_3; SO_2; and CO₂ have direct impacts on crops, while CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O are critical in altering air temperature.

     Particular attention is paid to likely changes on extreme events and sea level alterations. It is reported with high to very high confidence that in the 1990–2100 periods most extreme events will increase in intensity or frequency, or both. The published reports on the subject predict higher maximum temperatures and a greater number of hot days, higher minimum temperatures and fewer cold days, reduced diurnal temperature ranges, more intense precipitation events, increased risk of drought in summer periods, increases in peak wind intensities of cyclones, and increases in mean and peak precipitation intensities of tropical cyclones. On top of that, sea level is predicted to increase by 0.09–0.20 m.

Consequences on Horticultural Production

Climate variability leads to economic and food security risks throughout the world because of its major influences on crop production. Weather is the most important cause of year-to-year variability in crop production, even in high-yield and high technology environments. There has been considerable concern in recent years about possibility of climatic changes and their impact on the crop productivity. Today the entire world is suffering from global warming and its consequent climate change. Its impact on productivity and quality of crops has been documented fairly well.  Since a crop could be defined as a biological system tailored to give certain products, the product output and quality is bound to vary with change in the growing environment.

      The major changes in the earth’s atmosphere are the concentrations of CO2, which have increased by about 25% since the beginning of the industrial revolution. The CO2 concentration has increased from pre-industrial level of about 280 ppm to 393 ppm in2010. Carbon dioxide enhances photosynthesis and depresses plant respiration; these effects are expected to increase plant growth as well as affecting various other processes. However, a number of plant physiological processes are also affected by changes in temperature, ozone, ultraviolet radiation, nutrients and water, all of which are variable factors often associated with climatic change.

     Crop productivity will not only be affected by changes in climatically related  abiotic stresses (i.e. increasing temperatures , decreasing water availability, increasing salinity and inundation) and   biotic stresses (such as increases in pests and diseases), but also changes in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, acid deposition and ground level  ozone. Hence, a key challenge is to assess how crops will respond to simultaneous changes to the full range of biotic and abiotic stresses. In general, horticultural crops need intensive cultural care and thus are more vulnerable to climate change than cereals and pulses. Responding to these challenges to specific crop will require advances in crop research and the adoption of appropriate technologies to conduct these studies.

Impact on fruit Production

  The recurrent developmental events of phenology and seasonality in vegetative flushing or bud differentiation distinguish trees from annual or agricultural crops. The fact that trees live over multiple growing seasons implies that every year there is a considerable renewal cost of some organs (leaves and fine roots), and that trees are more responsive or susceptible to climatic changes. When horticultural productivity is the goal, the allocation of resources toward reproductive processes must be maximized. However, the tree must also preserve its growth potential for future years; thus, a delicate C balance must be maintained between vegetative and reproductive needs.  In spring, stored sugars and nutrients support actively growing shoots and inflorescences. Competition occurs between vegetative and reproductive meristems, and the fruit is growing essentially on the currently produced photosynthates. Fruits represent a major C sink in tree crops. The relationship between fruit load and photosynthetic activity, as well as the effects of several climatic variables, has been intensively studied. Among all tree crops, cultivated fruit trees are the ones most adequately supplied with water and nutrients; thus, there should be few, if any, constraints to a positive CO2 response.

     Climatic change effects are not caused by a single factor (e.g. elevated CO2), but originate from complex interactions among various factors such as atmospheric CO2, air temperature, nutrient supply, tropospheric ozone level, UV-B radiation, drought frequency, etc. A reduction of stomatal conductance under elevated CO2 might have a significant effect on water transport in trees, since the latter is roughly proportional to stomatal conductance. Hydraulic conductivity was reported to decrease with elevated CO2 but this effect is very species-specific. A decrease in stomatal conductance in response to CO2 enrichment is commonly observed in many crops. However, under elevated CO2, the increase in WUE is usually greater than the reduction of stomatal conductance, especially under drought conditions.  

        Among all plant organs, fine tree roots generally show the greatest response to elevated CO₂. In addition to increases in fine-root density, trees may enhance their nutrient uptake capacity through alterations in root morphology and architecture. Trees grown under elevated CO₂ initiate more lateral root primordia, leading to increased root branching and a more thorough exploration of the soil. In addition to changes in fine-root density, morphology and structure, alterations in root functioning are also frequently observed in the changed environments. However, it has been a general observation that the long-lived plants have more time to acclimate to changing environmental conditions than the short-lived organisms. On a time scale, this acclimation might occur in the order of several years. The acclimation process might be influenced by seasonal changes in environmental conditions.

      Extreme events although vary from short-lived, violent phenomena of limited extent such as tornadoes, flash floods, cyclones and severe thunderstorms, to the effects of prolonged drought and floods. Drought and floods are responsible for more significant impacts on productivity of mango, guava, litchi and other perennial orchards. Short-lived cyclones during early or later stage of fruit growth can inflict severe damage to the orchardists. However, some positive impacts of natural disasters have also been reported as increased rainfall to inland areas from tropical cyclones, the fixing of atmospheric nitrogen by thunderstorms, the germination of many native plant species, and the maintenance of fertility of flood-plain soils due to flooding. In litchi, fruits crack severely after heavy rainfall at the end of prolonged dry spells. High temperature (>38⁰C) and dry westerly wind or heat-waves in May often lead to sun burning of the fruit skin in litchi which induces cracking towards harvest. Majority of our fruit orchards are rain-fed and thus scanty rain or drought brings considerable reduction in production and quality of the produce.

Impact on Vegetables Production

Increasing CO₂ will enhance photosynthesis and improve water-use efficiency, thus increasing yield in most vegetable crops. Relative benefits from increased CO₂ can often be maintained with modest water and N deficiency, but yield benefits on an absolute basis are reduced when water or N limit growth. The impact of increasing temperatures is more difficult to predict. Seed germination will probably be improved for most vegetables, as will vegetative growth in regions where mean daily temperatures during the growing season remain under 25°C, assuming adequate water is available. Reproductive growth is extremely vulnerable to periods of heat stress in many important vegetable fruiting crops, such as tomato, pepper, bean and sweet-corn, and yield reductions will probably occur unless production is shifted to cooler portions of the year or to cooler production regions. This vulnerability results from the shortened duration of grain, storage tissue, or fruit-filling and from failure of various reproductive events, especially the production and release of viable pollen. Processing crops, which are sometimes direct-seeded and are more frequently grown in cool-summer areas, are more likely than fresh-market crops to benefit from higher temperatures. In general, crops with a high harvest index, high sink demand, indeterminate growth and long growth seasons are considered most likely to respond positively to the combination of higher CO₂ and temperature. Relatively few crops have been studied, however and cultivars within a crop often differ in their responses, thus making generalizations difficult.

     In many crops, high temperatures may decrease quality parameters, such as size, soluble solids and tenderness. For fresh-market vegetable producers, even minor quality flaws can make their crops completely unsalable in some markets. Reduced or more irregular precipitation will also decrease vegetable yields and quality, although soluble solids and specific weight may increase in some crops. Leafy greens and most Cole crops (cabbage, cauliflower, kohlrabi (knolkhol), broccoli, brussels sprouts etc.)  are generally considered to be cool-season crops, so heat stress during the growing season would be detrimental to these species. High-temperature effects on lettuce and spinach and low-temperature effects on Cole crops include induction of flowering and elongation of the seed stalk. Perennial crops also require an overwinter cool period. Thus, planting dates, production areas and cultivars may need to be adjusted if temperatures change.

Significance of Weather Forecasting

The term weather is used to describe day-to-day variations in our atmosphere. This includes precipitation, temperature, humidity and cloud cover, among other variables. Weather forecasts are essentially short-term, as the reliability of forecasts falls off rapidly after five days. Weather is therefore an instantaneous concept. The climate of a region is described by collating the weather statistics to obtain estimates of the daily, monthly and annual means, medians and variability of the weather data. Climate is therefore a long-term average of weather. Weather is certainly the most important factor that determines the success or the failure of a crop in a particular area or region.  It manifests itself through its effects on plant growth, flowering, fruiting intensity, overall yield, pest dynamics and soil health. A plant suffering from stress at any stage of growth is much more susceptible to pest problems than the normal ones. A greater proportion of the total annual crop loss results from aberrant weather. It has been estimated that weather directly and indirectly accounts for approximately three fourth of the annual loss in farm production. However, the crop losses can be reduced substantially by affecting adjustments through timely and accurate weather forecasts. Such weather forecast support and provides guidelines for long range or seasonal planning and selection of crops best suited to the anticipated climatic conditions.

        Weather forecasting service to agriculture is designed to help the user solve a variety of weather-induced problems. The user for an agricultural weather forecast program can be anyone in the production and marketing chain of the crops. Agricultural planning i.e. strategic (long-term) and tactical (less than 10 days) ; needs to weigh climate-related and other risks to attain the producer’s goals and to spell out the sort of information that farmers need to aid their planning of crop, its production and marketing. While a number of weather parameters are important to agriculture, the main benefit to farmers comes from communication of the criticality of weather at a time when an important operation to produce the crop is to be taken up. This may be planting, weeding, irrigation, and harvesting, crop protection (general), insect control, disease control, and appropriate selection of crops or sites for crops or its varieties. During the growing season, the vulnerability of crops to different weather events can change. Varying timescales and key agricultural decisions are also important, especially in terms of the need to recognize how different climate and weather systems affect different farming decisions. Consequently, it is of primary importance to understand the relationship between the stage of development of a crop and weather as the growing season progresses.      

The Agro-Meteorological Advisory Service (AAS)

The agro-meteorological  advisory service (AAS) rendered by India Meteorological Department is a mechanism to apply relevant meteorological information to help the farmer make the most efficient use of natural resources (soil, water, solar energy etc), with aim of improving agricultural production, both in quantity and quality. It is a step to provide weather information based crop management strategies and operations to enhance crop production and ensure food security. Several Govt. agencies at district or agro-climatic zone level are involved in translating weather and climate information into farm advisories using existing research database on crop production. Weather forecast up to 5 days is made with respect to rainfall, maximum, minimum temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity and cloudiness, besides weekly cumulative rainfall forecast. The weather forecast based agro-met advisory bulletin contains information on important crop management practices  and gives warning to farmers much in advance regarding variations in rainfall, in its intensity and other weather factors like high velocity wind, cyclones, frost and information related to pests and diseases of important crops grown in the area  in a particular season. Based on this information, a farmer is better prepared to decide about crop production practices like time for sowing, wedding, irrigation and fertiliser application and harvesting. These advisories are thus helping them to make appropriate decisions to get the best from their investments and hard work.

        In general, weather forecasts for agriculture can be grouped into short range forecast (up to 48 hours), medium range forecast (3-10 days) and long range forecast (one month to entire season). Each plays an important role in farm operations and planning of agricultural activities. The most common forecast uses are changes in sowing date and crop variety with the latter being more prevalent where a wider choice of varieties exists. Mixed strategies generally used more inputs like manure or chemical fertilizers coupled with another strategy such as changing sowing date along with irrigation and fertilization schedules. Yield estimates recorded in different areas/ zones suggest that forecast use definitely leads to yield gains.

 Prominent Concerns

It is obvious that weather forecast can minimise losses through proper management of crop production practices and thus, helps in increasing the economic benefits. Consequences or effect of the important weather parameters recorded in the observatory are communicated  in advisories  in terms of forecasts of rain, thundershowers, cyclone, temperature rise and fall,  frost , fog, heat-waves, flood, drought etc. Rain is definitely one of the most important factors of crop production, not only as a necessary source of plant moisture but also as a harbinger of disease.  Forecasting rain, intensity and duration, can provide useful information to growers who need to save water and protect crops from attack of diseases due to prolonged moist weather. Prediction for prolonged incessant rain indicates towards the risk of flood. The producers may harvest even premature vegetables, from their standing crops in low-lying areas that are expected to be inundated due to floodwater. Rivers like Burhi Gandak, Bagmati, Kosi overflow during rainy reason and pose threats for water inundation in the lower surroundings. The growers should avoid taking vegetables that are unable to tolerate waterlogging even for few days.

         The agro-meteorological advisory also highlights the chances of getting an insect pest or disease. Typically, the onset of Potato or Tomato Blight disease can be estimated by the duration of cloudy weather, frost or rain during the later stages of crop growth. Protection may follow in the form of a fungicide spray or irrigating the field to provide protection against frost. Horticultural crops particularly vegetables, flowers require frequent irrigation for good yield. Forecasts of draught or insufficient rains provide farmers with information for managing irrigation scheduling. Forecast schemes based on temperatures, wind, and evaporation have been successful in devising suitable irrigation schedules for higher productivity.

         Forecasting cyclones associated with mild or heavy rains high velocity winds and the time of day when it occurs is important for taking up aerial application of pesticides and herbicides.  Unwanted spray drift can become a serious problem where adjacent fields contain crops that are not to be sprayed with the same chemicals or where environment protection may be an important issue. Similarly, horticultural crops like grape, strawberry, tomato, capsicum, cucumber, roses, chrysanthemum, gerbera etc are considered high-value-crops. Many such crops are grown now under precision farming that happens to be a data intensive practice where both the physical and environmental factors affecting crop production are continuously monitored and analysed. The results of this monitoring and analysis are used as management tools to produce the highest quality crop.  The scale of monitoring and management define how “precise” the farming will be. This will likely also require that forecast resolution match the observations. Since agriculture is highly vulnerable to year-to-year climate variability, a network of small growers in an area may require a more realistic forecast for higher profitability from their endeavour.

         Estimates of potential changes to flood risk due to climate change can be of great value but are difficult to estimate for various reasons including uncertain rainfall projections and problems associated with transforming model rainfall values into runoff and inflows at relevant catchment scales. The Kosi River in north Bihar has a long history of causing serious flood events. Changes to the risk of more serious floods is assumed to depend on changes to either the magnitude or frequency of extreme rainfall events combined with changes to the amount of water actually stored in the catchment area.

Conclusions

There is broad consensus that, in addition to increased temperatures, climate change will bring about regionally dependent increases or decreases in rainfall, an increase in cloud cover and increases in sea level. Extreme climate events will also increase in intensity or frequency, such as higher maximum temperatures, more intense precipitation events, increased risk and duration of drought, and increased peak wind intensities of cyclones. Predictions indicate possibilities of increases in temperature of 1 to 3°C by 2050 combined with some complex spatially explicit changes in rainfall. However, there remains high uncertainty in predictions of extreme events, especially hurricanes. Consequently, climate change is likely to invoke substantial changes to production of horticultural crop in a region and the severity with which biotic and abiotic stresses will affect the productivity of these crops. Since climate change can be expected to have varying effects in different areas on the expression of drought, salinity, waterlogging and pest infestation, the mitigation strategies also vary according to the prevailing situations. While there will be increased irrigation under drought conditions, urgent measures are required for irrigation in drought areas and drainage of water from localities getting excessive rain or flood causing waterlogged situations.

        Considering the large areas of horticultural crops production in different parts of the country, the estimated economic potential is very high. However, there are a number of challenges to realize these benefits. These challenges are generally related to the uncertainty of climate forecasts and to the complexities of the agricultural production systems involving so many factors. Accurate short (1-2 days), medium (3-10 days) and long term (1-6 months) forecasts of climate ahead of time can potentially allow growers and traders to make decisions to reduce unwanted impacts of climate or take advantage of its expected favourable impacts. However, potential benefits of climate forecasts vary considerably because of many physical, biological, economic, social, and political factors. However, improved scientific knowledge of the processes controlling climate predictability has the potential to improve our understanding of the climate and its damaging or favourable impact on productivity of the crops. Working on the interactions between providers and users of climate information is thus of crucial importance. Identifying effective ways to co-design and co-generate climate services with the users is becoming one of the most important challenges that climate service science needs to tackle.

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Protect Litchi Fruits from Sun-burning and Skin-cracking

Sunburning and fruit cracking are two major disorders that inflict a heavy loss on economic return from litchi cultivation. Hot and dry weather conditions, low soil moisture, deficiency of plant nutrients like calcium and boron, hormonal imbalance and varietal susceptibility are major factors responsible for these disorders. Irrigation at weekly interval to maintain adequate soil moisture, proper plant nutrition particularly in relation to elements like calcium and boron and spray of NAA (20 ppm) or GA3 (50 ppm) 3 weeks ahead of expected harvest date can reduce these disorders to a minimum level. Applying irrigation through under-canopy and over-head sprinkling of water creates a more favorable humid micro-climate within the orchard boundary that restricts both sunburning as well as skin-cracking to a minimum of 3 to 4% level.

Horticultural Production and Research in Bihar

The state of Bihar, endowed with very fertile plain land and subtropical climate, holds a vast potential for growing a large variety of horticultural crops. Many tropical and subtropical fruits, vegetables, tuber crops, medicinal and aromatic plants, flowers, spices and plantation crops are grown commercially in the state. Presently fruits and vegetable crops cover about 1.0 million ha accounting for roughly 19.5% of the net cropped area and 14% of gross cropped area of the state. There has been a substantial increase both in area and production of these crops in the last three decades. Now the state ranks fourth in fruit production and third in vegetable production in the country. The state is also one of the leading producers of spices for which there is good demand in domestic as well as foreign markets. Considering the highest rate of population increase in the country there is a need to lay more emphasis on horticultural crops than others because they are capable give 10 to 20 times higher yield than cereals or pulses and thus are more paying with distinctly higher benefit/cost ratios.

1 Production Scenario
1.1 Fruits
The area under fruits in the state during 2005--06 was 292 thousand hectares with a total annual production of 3.2 minion tones. The state thus contributes nearly 6.8% the country's total fruit production, which is around 47.0 million tonnes. Demographically 8% of the country's total population lives in this state. Thus there exists a deficiency of 1.2 % between production and population level. The availability of fruit/head/day is about 70 g.
Mango is the most important fruit crop with the largest acreage (49%) and production (41 %). The productivity of mango in the state is 8.72 t/ha, which is lower than the national average of 9.0 t/ha. Guava occupies 27 thousand hectares with a productivity rate of 7.18 t/ha. Banana is the second most important crop with respect to production. The average productivity of banana in the state is 34.21 t/ha. The state offers most salubrious climate for cultivation of litchis. About two-third of the total litchi production in the country comes from Bihar. Among citrus fruits, only lime, lernon and pummeloes are grown throughout the state but large commercial establishments are not common. Pineapple is cultivated commercially in northeastern part of the state particularly in Kishanganj, Purnea, Katihar and Saharsa districts. Similarly coconut has also shown promise in Koshi belt. Area under papaya is often fluctuating. It is estimated that papaya is grown in an area of about 2000 ha in Samastipur, Begusarai, Muzaffarpur and adjoining districts with a total production of around 64 thousand tones per annum. Some other fruits grown in the state are: jackfruit, custard apple, aonla, bael, ber, pomegranate, peach, sapota, jamun, karonda, mulberry, khirni and amra.
1.2 Vegetables
The state of Bihar has a long tradition of growing a large number of vegetables. Due to the diversified agro-ecological situations, a wide range of vegetable spices are grown throughout the year, ensuring a regular year-round supply of summer vegetables like bottle gourd, sponge gourd, cucumber, brinjal, chilli, radish, onion and cowpea. Depending on the situation, vegetables are grown in open fields as a seasonal commercial crop, in family kitchen gardens (or in backyards) for home consumption, in newly established fruit orchards as an intercrop, or grown with sugarcane or maize as an intercrop.
The total area under vegetable production is about 5.00 lakh ha with annual production of 7.6 millon tonnes. The average productivity is 15.35 t/ha. The primary commercial vegetable crops representing more than 90% of the cultivated vegetable area are crucifers (cauliflower, cabbage), salanceous vegetables (eggplant, tomato and chilli), okra, cucurbits (gourds, cucumber and melons), root crops (radish, carrot, turnip) and pulses (peas, beans). Secondary vegetable crops, also of significant commercial importance include leafy vegetables (spinach and amaranth), tubers (sweet potato, amorphophallus, colocasia, yam-bean) and crucifers (broccoli and celary).
Major constraints with respect to productivity enhancement are: lack of quality seeds; pest management; lack of organized marketing channels; poor handling, grading and packaging practices; lack of cold storage and processing facilities; poor roads and lack of transportation facilities, lack of growers’ co-operative and lack of strong data base /or market intelligence service to forecast demand and supply of a particular commodity.
1.3 Tuber crops
Root and tuber crops are the third most important food crop after cereals and legumes for providing food and nutritional security to the ever increasing population. Tuber crops have high productivity potential both in terms of dry matter and energy production per unit area and time. These crops show wide ability to grow in wide variations of soil types and climatic conditions. Among tuber and root crops, sweet potato, Amorphophallus, yam bean, colocasia (Arvi) and lesser yam are very popular and being extensively cultivated in Bihar. Apart from sweet potato tuber consumed by human, the vine is widely used as green fodder for animals. The fresh tuber of yam bean is eaten raw after pealing and its seed can be utilized as bio-insecticides against leaf eating caterpillars. The colocasia (Taroi) fetches good market price during the flood season. The cultivation of Amorphophallus has become extremely popular in the state in recent years and grown either as sole crop or as intercrop in litchi / mango orchards.
1.4 Spices
Spice crops like turmeric, ginger and chillies are grown commercially during Kharif season and coriander, fenugreek, fennel, omum and nigella during Rabi season. Besides these, dill, bay-leaf and long-pepper are also grown in some areas to a limited extent. Total area under spice crops is 10.8 thousand ha with annual production of about 57 thousand tonnes. Turmeric is grown either as a sole crop or as a mixed crop with maize or pigeon pea. It is also grown as an intercrop in litchi or mango orchards in the kharif season. This is mainly due to small holding size of the farmers. Big farmers usually grow it as sole crop. This is also true with ginger but mongo ginger is grown on a very limited scale.
In case of seed-spices, coriander is grown as mixed crop with tobacco and potato for seed but it is grown commercially for green leaves. But farmers grow corian­der as sole crop in marginal lands. However, in Diara lands of the Ganges, coriander, omum & nigella are grown as rainfed crops. Fennel is often intercropped with chillies and also grown as border crop in potato field. Now with availability of seeds of the high yielding varieties, area under spices is steadily increasing in the state.Contribution of Bihar to the national production of different spices is follows: Omum 24.50%; Nigella 21.75%; Turmeric 10.75%; Fennel 10.32%; Fenugreek 3.68%; Coriander 3.58% and Ginger 1.47%. The present level of production can be enhanced through systematic research efforts and transferring its fruits to the growers.
1.5 Flowers and ornamentals
The aesthetic value of flowers in our daily life cannot be over emphasized. No social or religious function is complete without flowers in our society and thus flowers are always in great demand. However, the state is not producing enough flowers to meet its domestic requirements. Huge quantity of flowers is brought from the neighbouring states like W.B. and U.P. At present the area under cultivation of flowers in the state is very limited. Organized commercial cultivation in a large area is seldom found. Flowers are grown mainly in tiny plots near cities for loose flowers to make lari, garland, veni and gazara. Recently farmers have also started commercial production of crops like rose, gladiolus and tuberose. The main markets are located at Patna, Muzaffarpur, Bhagalpur, Gaya, Rajgir, Purnia, Munger and some other district towns.
Gladiolus, rose, marigold and tuberose have wide adaptability to different soil and climatic conditions of the state. They bloom for a considerably long period and their flowers keep remarkably well when cut. To increase the area under flower production the University has taken the responsibility of popularizing these flowers through field demonstrations and training programmes in rural areas under Macro Mode Management Programme . Due to this initiative and Govt support the area under floriculture in the state has now gone up to 450 ha. Flowers are grown mainly for their loose and cut flowers. The potential of floriculture as an industry is yet to be exploited.
1.6 Medicinal and aromatic plants
The exact area under different medicinal and aromatic plants is not known but medicinal and aromatic plants are becoming popular amongst the farmers and the area under these crops is gradually increasing in the state. Medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina (Sarpgandha), Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Acorus calamus (Bach), Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh), Asparagns racemosus (Satawar), Gloriosa superba (Kalihari), Mucuna prurita (Kaunch), Urginea indica (Wild onion), Chlorophytum borivillianum (Safed Musli), Plantago ovata (Isabagol), Catharanthus roseus (Sadabahar) and Piper longum (Pipli) are being grown commercially. Similarly aromatic plants like Mentha arvensis (Japani mint), Cymbopogon winterianus (Citronella), Cymbopogon martini (Palmarosa), Cymbopogon flexuosus (Lemon grass), Vetiveria zizanioides (Khas), Ocimum basilicum (Indian Basil / Tulsi), Pogostemon patchouli (Patchouli), Pandanus fascicularis(Kewada) and Polianthus tuberosa (Tuberose) are under cultivation and gradually becoming popular. Efforts are on to popularize cultivation of these species. Government agencies and NGOs are providing assistance for taking up cultivation of these plants. However, some people are still skeptical about chances of earning more from these crops, particularly because they are not well aware of processing and marketing of the end products.
1.7 Plantation crops
Among the plantation crops, coconut has expanded to about 15,000 ha in north Bihar. Tea plantation has also come up in Purnea and adjoining district. There is a potential for extending area under the cashew nut in Jamui, Rohtas, Aurangabad and Nawada districts.
1.8 Fruit and vegetable Processing
Despite a large production base, only 1 per cent of the raw fruits and vegetables are processed in the state. Small scale processing industries are located in the cities / towns like Patna, Muzaffarpur, Hajipur, Gaya, Kisanganj, Purnea and Bhagalpur. Majority of processing units are crop specific and thus operational during a limited period of time. There are only 45 licensed fruit and vegetable processing units in the state. Most of these units are engaged in the manufacture of fruit juices, fruit pulps excluding frozen), squashes, pickles, tomato ketchup/sauce, tomato juice, tomato puree, jam / jelly / marmalades, squashes / cordials, barley waters, fruit beverages including RTS, canned fruits and vegetables, dehydrated vegetable products, pickles, chutneys, fruit juice concentrate etc. There are a few more units along similar lines in the unorganized sector also which are involved in minimal processing.
Farm level pre-processing facilities such as pre-cooling facilities, cooling facilities, collection centers, grading and sorting systems, washing and cleaning ­facilities and pack houses, etc., are absent. These are critical to preserve quality and prevent temperature shocks immediately after harvest. Warehousing and storage­ system for fruits and vegetables are absent except for potatoes and a few for onion. ­The entire produce after harvest is immediately transported to the markets within and outside state and some to the processing units mainly for fruits.
The fruit and vegetable processing segment is marked by a complete absence of cold chain along the value chain resulting in quality deterioration and degradation of raw materials. Similarly, even after processing, the products are kept under minimal refrigeration or no refrigeration. A large number of these units are working on work-order basis for larger chains and as such find that the operating margins being thin leave no scope of either technology upgradation or expansion
2 Research Organisations
The onus of horticultural research in the state is mainly on the Rajendra agricultural University, Pusa and some ICAR Institutes. The Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa came into existence on December 3, 1970 to give the much needed impetus for agricultural development in the state through education, research and rapid transfer of improved technologies related to crop production and livestock management. Since its inception the university has been working to transform the state's traditional subsistence agricultural into a modern scientifically oriented production system. Improving productivity and quality of the horticultural crops is one of the major tasks of the Research Directorate of the university. All the constituent agriculture and Horticulture Colleges situated at Sabour (Bhagalpur), Dholi (Muzaffarpur), Saharsa and Noorsarai (Nalanda) shoulder the responsibility of research on horticultural crops.
Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour is the oldest of all units where planed horticultural research started way back in 1935. Presently the college has research programmes on vegetable crops, mango, litchi, guava and some other minor fruits. Horticultural Research Station, Birauly is having research programmes on litchi. Tirhut College of Agriculture, Dholi (Muzaffarpur) is having three ICAR Co-ordinated research projects on Potato, spices and other tuber crops. Banana Research Station, Hajipur established in 1956 has now been re-mandated to function as KVK of the district Vaishali. Banana and Papaya research programmes are presently located at farms of the university at Pusa under the aegis of AICRP (TF). Regional Research Stations of the university located in different argo-climatic zones of the state are conducting research on horticultural crops sparingly due to inadequate financial support. However, they are multiplying and selling nursery plants.
Amongst ICAR institutes CPRI, Patna (established in 1944) is the oldest. Recently two NRCs one for Litchi and the other for Makhana have been established at Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga respectively. IARI Regional Station located at Pusa is also doing research on papaya. It is obvious that the fund to support the research on horticultural crops comes mainly from the public sector. The private sector is not active for the cause of horticulture except for commercial production of nursery plants and vegetable seeds. They are generally not indulged in R and D activities. Considering a huge number of crops and their specific needs there is a need to strengthen the public sector research system so that it can perform to high standards, be more productive and meet expectations.
3 Research Accomplishments
Research programmes, among other things, were carried out in the past mainly for raising production and quality of horticultural crops. The measures adopted to achieve this include distribution of improved seeds/planting materials, use of fertilizers in higher quantities, covering more target areas under irrigation, taking up plant protection measures, and adoption of improved crop production techniques. These efforts have paid rich dividends by way of marked increase in overall productivity of the crops. However, there still exists an appreciable gap between yield obtained at research stations and the average harvest at the farm level. This gap needs to be bridged through faster adoption of improved production technologies generated through research. Research achievements made so far on major horticultural crops in the university are summarized below:
3.1 Fruits
MANGO
= Elight superior mango varieties have been developed from Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour. Their important characteristics are given below:
= Prabhashankar: This hybrid has been developed as a result of cross between Bombai and Kalapady. It is a late variety with regular bearing habit. The ripened fruits are pale green in colour. Pulp is very sweet, pleasantly flavoured, fibreless, soft and orange coloured. The fruits are medium in size (200g per fruit), 9.2 cm in length and 6.9 cm in breadth. The T.S.S. and acidity of the fruit are 23.0 and 0,2412 percent respectively. The pulp is 64.1 per cent. It has been observed that this hybrid is not only resistant to high velocity wind but also produces good fruiting even under adverse situations, average production 235 q/ha. It is the first mango hybrid released in India in 1951.
= Mahmood Bahar: Its parents are the same as that of Prabhashankar i.e. Bombai and Kalapady. But fruit characters are not similar to that of Prabhashankar. This is also a late variety and regular in bearing to some extent. The ripened fruit of Mahmood Bahar is pale green in colour. The fruit is of medium size (210g per fruit), 8.8 cm in length and 7.1 cm in breadth. The pulp is yellow in colour, sweet with pleasant flavour, less fibrous and firm. The firmness of pulp may be utilized in fruit preservation industry. The T.S.S. and acidity of the fruit are 22.0 and 0.2546 per cent respectively. The pulp is 70.8 percent and average production is 230 q/ha.
= Sundar Langra: This hybrid has been developed as a result of cross between Langra and Sundar Pasand. The fruit becomes pale green at maturity. It is regular bearing. The fruit is somewhat bigger in size (240.0 g per fruit), 10.5 cm in length and 7.6 cm in breadth. The colour of the pulp is light orange. It is sweet, pleasant in taste, fibreless and soft. The T.S.5., acidity and pulp percentage are 23.0, 0.19 and 75.8 per cent, respectively. It produces fruit yield of 250 q/ha.
= Alfazli: It has been obtained as a result of cross between Alponso x Fazli. It is a late season variety. The fruits become pale green after ripening. The fruit is bigger in size (460.0 g per fruit), 12.2 cm in length and 7.7 cm in breadth. The pulp is light yellow in colour and is less sweet, less fibrous and soft. The T.S.S., acidity and pulp percentage are 18.5, 0.24 and 79.0 percent, respectively. Average annual yield is 210 q/ha.
= Jawahar: This hybrid has been obtained as a result of cross between Gulabkhas x Mahmood Bahar and named 'Jawahar'on the occasion of Nehru Centenary Year' in1989 by the State Variety Release Committee. It is a mid season variety, the mature fruits of which are available from second week of June. Its special features are its precocity and regularity in bearing. It is a medium yielder. The fruits become greenish yellow on ripening. Its fruits are of medium size (215.0 g per fruit), 12.5 cm in length and 7.2 cm in breadth. Pulp is light yellow in colour, sweet and pleasantly flavoured remaining firm after ripening. The T.S.S., acidity and pulp percentage are 22.5, 0.14 and 79.5 per cent respectively. Its average production potential is 280 q/ha.
= Sabri: It has been obtained as a result of cross between Gulabkhas x Bombai. It is early and regular in bearing. It has taken its shape from Bombai and colour from Gulabkhas. The fruit is ovate - oblong in shape and greenish yellow in colour with red blush on the fruit base. The fruit is smaller in size (153.0 g per fruit) measuring 9.8 cm in length and 7.2 cm in breadth. The pulp is reddish in colour, very sweet, highly flavored, and fibreless and remains firm after ripening. The firmness of pulp can be utilized in fruit preservation industry. The T.S.S., acidity and pulp percentage are 22.5, 0.08 and 74.0 percent respectively. It produces fruit yield of 229 q/ha.
= Subhash: This variety was obtained as a result of selection from seedlings of cv. Zardalu. It is mid season in ripening and tends to bear regularly. The ripened fruits are bright yellow in colour (as Zaradalu) with the shape of Langra fruit. The fruits are medium in size with average weight of 220.0 g/fruit. The T.S.S. and acidity of the fruits are 24.0 and 0.29 per cent respectively. The pulp content is 76 per cent. It is free from any serious pest and diseases. The keeping quality of the fruit is medium. It was named after Subhash Chandra Bose in the year of his birth centenary. Its average production level is 225 q/ha.
= Menaka: This variety was obtained as a result of selection from seedings of Gulabkhas. Ripened fruits are obtained in July and it has regular bearing tendency. Ripened fruit are attractive in colour having 75.0 per cent basal portion deep red in colour and the rest portion yellow in colour. Its pulp is deep yellow, sweet and pleasant in flavour less fibrous and firm. Fruit shape is oblong - oblique. Average fruit weight is 300 g. T.S.S. of the fruit is 200 Brix, acidity 0.14 per cent and pulp content is 75 per cent. Its ripened fruit can be stored for 6-7 days at room temperature. Its average production is 225 q/ha.
= A fertilizer trial was conducted in mango cv. Langra to standardize the level of N, P and K. There were five levels of each nutrient (N, P and K). They were 0.00 g, 40.46g, 100.00g, 159.11 g and 200.00 g per year per plant up to 10th year. Fertilizers were applied twice in a year, half in June and remaining half in September. The maximum trunk girth (97.45cm) was recorded with the treatment combination 40.56g N, 159.33g P and 40.56g K.
= In another trial lentil was found as the best intercrop in young mango orchard among differ­ent of legumes which also produced maximum yield of mango fruits (97.23 q/ha) and lentil (7.58 q/ha).. This treatment also gave the maximum gross return of Rs. 1, 05,564.60 per hectare.
= Similarly, the best intercrop among different vegetable crops was bottle gourd in kharif and radish in rabi. Intercropping in young orchard of mango cv. Langra produced maximum yield of mango fruits (981 .29 q/ha) with bottle gourd (7.62 q/ha) resulting into maxi­mum/gross return of Rs. 94,447.32 per hectare.
= Anasessment of losses due to fruit flies in 10 commercial varieties of mango i.e. Langra, Taimuria, Aman Dashahari, Bombai, Hemsagar, Zardalu, Prabhashankar, Mallika, Krishnabhog and Sipia was done by examining healthy as well as infested fruits at natural fruit drop stages. Out of 10 varieties, none was found resistant to this pest. Prabhashankar showed the lowest infestation (0.93%) while, Aman Dashahari showed the highest infestation (10%).
= Five different chemicals have been tested at different concentrations against powdery mildew of mango. Four sprays were made at 15 days interval starting from Feb. 12. Bayleton @ 0.1 % was found to be the most effective for controlling powdery mildew of mango. Karathane applied @0.l% was also at par with Bayleton 0.1%.
= Application of paclobutrazol @ 5.0- 1 0.0g a.i. (20 to 40 ml) per tree per year through soil drench three months before expected flowering time has been found effective in inducing regular bearing and increasing productivity of mango cv. Langra. A dose of 5g should be applied to trees less than 20 years in age and 10g for those who are more than 20 years in age.
= With Amrapali mango, 'Double Hedge Row Planting' accommodating 3556 plants per hectare proved better in producing higher yield, though there was slight decrease in average fruit weight.
= Performance of veneer grafted mango plants was better in respect to plant vigour and early bearing tendency or precocity..
LITCHI
= Eighteen litchi genotypes are being maintained in a field gene bank at Horticultural Research Station, Birauly. In variety evaluation studies with eight varieties. Litchi cultivars Shahi, Rose-Scented, Late Bedana, Mandaraji & China have been recommended for commercial cultivation on the basis of variety trials. Three new improved varieties listed below have been released from Sabour.
= Sabour Madhu: This hybrid litchi variety was released in 1997. It is a cross between Purbi x Bedana. It is a late variety. Shape of red fruits is conical. Fruits are small (3.10 x 2.64 cm) and fruit weight is nearly 15.5 g/fruit. T.S.S. is 210 Brix and acidity 0.298 per cent. Pulp percentage is 68.6, which is off white coloured, soft, very sweet, juicy and scented. Special feature of this variety is that the fruits are available in second week of June. Average fruit yield is nearly 70 kg/tree with negligible cracking percentage.
= Rajendra Hybrid - 235 : It’s a hybrid between Purbi and Late Bedana maturing in the middle of litchi season with excellent fruit quality. Fruit shape is ovate like Shahi but TSS is higher than Shahi (23.4%). It’s average fruit weight is 21.8 g, measuring 3.95 cm x 3.35 cm in size, fruit skin bright red and pulp percentage is 65.13. The pulp colour is creamy white. Average yield potential is 80 - 100 kg/tree.
= Rajendra Sabour Bedana : It is a selection made at Bihar Agriculture College, Sabour form chance seedlings of litchi grown in the college premises. The average fruit weight of this variety is 27.0 g measuring 3.78 cm x 3.62 cm in size. The fruit is very attractive in colour with bright red skin. The pulp is creamy white in colour with pleasant flavour. Flesh recovery in this variety is very high 82.7 percent. The taste is very sweet with TSS 24.0 percent. It is a late season variety maturing in the first week of June. Average yield potential is 80 – 100 kg /tree.
o Double Hedge Row Planting with 222 Litchi trees/ha produced the highest yield of 20.3 t/ha as against 11.5 t/ ha with 100 tress/ha under Square System of planting.
o In tree training experiment on Litchi cv China the impact of training was highly significant. The trees under modified central leader and vase system produced better yield than Central Leader or the untrained control trees. Application of 1250g N, 300g P2O5 and 700g K­2O/tree/year was recommended for adult (bearing) litchi trees over 10 years in age.
o In pruning trial, harvesting fruit bunches with 50 cm or 75 cm long branches had adverse effect on subsequent fruiting of the trees. Likewise removal of new vegetative flushes in Nov. - Dec. did not influence the fruiting when practiced with removal of 50 or 75 cm branches at the harvesting time.
o Irrigation and sprinkling of water had significant impact on reducing fruit cracking in Shahi litchi in comparison to the unirrigated control. Keeping orchard soil near field capacity and maintaining atmospheric humidity above 50% reduced the cracking up to 5 % level.
o Application of Ethrel at 400ppm at 2 weeks before expected harvest date advances repining of “Shahi” litchi by one week. Foliar spray of chlormequat or SADH @ 2000ppm delays ripening of late cultivar “China” by 9 days. This can be used for harvest manipulation to ensure availability of litchi in the market for extended period.
o Foliar spray of 1.0% borax appreciably reduces the extent of fruit cracking in litchi. Likewise, spray of NAA at 20ppm markedly reduces the cracking of fruits in litchi and spray of 10ppm GA3 helps in better growth of litchi fruits. The spraying is required soon after fruit setting.
o For low temperature (4 + 10C) storage, fresh litchi fruits need to be exposed to sulphur fumes by burning 50g S/100kg fruits. Sulphur fumigation proves to be a good antimicrobial treatment.
o Fruits require pre-cooling at 10+10C for 4 hours before keeping them at low temperature (4 + 10C) and high relative humidity (>90%). AT low temperature pre-cooled fruits can be kept safely for 33 days.
o Litchi leaf roller, fruitr borer and Erinose mite were identified as major litchi pests in Samastipur, Vaishali and Muzaffarpur districts.Insecticide Carbaryl @ 0.1 per cent (two sprays at 10 days internal starting from 1st May borer produces the best results and minimized infestation of fruit borer up to 17.0 percent.
BANANA
= On account of their higher yield potential follow­ing cultivars were recommended for commercial cultivation under north Bihar agro-climatic conditions: Robusta, Basrai, Kanthali, Alphan, FHIA -1, FHIA , FHIA – 23,,Bhimkol, Kachkel and Kothia.
= A total of 98 banana accessions/genotypes are being maintained in the field gene bank at Pusa.
= Period from June to July was found to be the best time for planting banana in North Bihar. A density of 4444 plants/ha was found to be optimum for the best productivity of 'Dwarf Cavendish' banana under North Bihar agro­-ecological conditions. In another with tall varieties planting three suckers per pit at 1.8 x 3.6 m distance accommodating 4629 plants / ha gave comparable results with 5001 plants at 2m x 3m spacing. The B: C ratio was also comparable at the two densities. Thus a plant density of 4629 plants / ha was recommended for Kothia and Alpan varieties.
= Nitrogen application in small split doses up to 10 months age influenced the yield positively and appeared to be a contributory factor for yield gains in banana. For best yield, 250g N/plant/year should be applied in 7 splits at 45 days interval (200 g in 4 splits up to 165 days after planting + 50 g in 3 splits up to 300 days after planting).
= The best yield in banana was obtained when cowpea was grown as green manure crop before planting and 200 g N/plant/year was applied thereafter in a combination of 25% FYM and 75% straight fertilizers. Besides nitrogen, 50 g P205 and 200 g K20 were also applied to each plant.
= Application of 300g N/plant/year was recom­mended for cultivation of "Basrai (AAA)" banana under North Bihar conditions. Application of 300 g K2O/plant/year in 4 split gave the best yield of Basrai banana under North-Bihar conditions. About 2/3 of this amount should be applied in the first half of the vegetative phase i.e. up to 165 days and the rest 1/3 should be applied during later half of the vegetative phase i.e. up to 300 days of planting.
= Weeds in banana plantations can cause yield reduction up to 40 %. Weeding up to 9 months stage is vital for obtaining good yield from the plantations. Integrated weed control measure, which consisted of growing cowpea in the inter-row spaces and its incorporation into the soil at flowering stage followed by one spray of Glyphosate @ 2.0 kg a. i. / ha gave the best results.
= Covering of banana bunches with white polythene during winter was found beneficial as it helped in increasing the yield of bunches in winter by 15-20%. Black and white colour polythene bags used for sleeving did not show any difference in the response.
= The tissue cultured plants of Robusta and Grand Naine produced 10- 14 % higher yield than their sucker raised plants. The cycle duration of tissue cultured plants was shorter by one and half months.
= Spray of GA3 @ 25 ppm and 2, 4-D @ 20 ppm soon after opening of the last hand of the bunch produced significantly better yields than the non­-sprayed control.
= In banana five bio-fertilizers like vermicompost, Azospirillum, Tricoderma harzianum, VAM and PSB were used with 100 percent recommended dose of NPK and 25 and 50 per cent reduction in the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). Twenty-five per cent reductions in the recommended (NPK) dose produced at par results with full dose of NPK when the four bio-fertilizers were used with normal RDF. When there was 50% reduction in RDF, the yield declined significantly even after all the four bio-fertilizers were applied. However, the highest benefit : cost ration was obtained with 100 % RDF + VAM + PSB + Azospirillum.
= Spray of Neem Seed Kernel Extract (2%) was found highly effective to minimize severity of citrus canker disease caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis citri under field conditions.
= In a survey conducted to know the status of banana pests in Vaishali and Samastipur districts, five insect pests namely rhizome borer, pseudostem borer, scarring beetle, aphid and thrips were found to infest the crop.

= In a survey conducted in Vaishali district banana rhizospheres were found to harbour several plant parasitic nematodes viz. Helicotylenchus indicus, Tylenchorhynchus nudus, T. coldeni, Rotylenchulus reniformis and Meloidogyne incognita in dominat­ing population. It was noted that total population was maximum around wilted or unhealthy plants in comparison to healthy ones.
= In a banana based cropping system trial, crop combinations having 3 crops of banana and crops of papaya alternatively gave the maximum net return. Experiments on identification of suitable genotypes for fibre extraction from banana pseudostem are underway.
PAPAYA
= Papaya cultivars like ‘Pusa Delicious’, ‘Pusa Dwarf’ and ‘Pusa Majesty’ perform better than other cultivars under north Bihar agro-climatic situations. They were recommended for wider adoption.
= September and October transplanting of Papaya was recommended as it gave better performance than winter (Jan.) or rainy season (July) plantings. September planting recorded lower viral infestation.
= When Zn (0.5%) and B (0.1 %) was sprayed on Papaya either alone or in combination, the best result was obtained with 2 sprays of Zn. A combination of Zn (0.5%) + B (0.1 %) also pro­duced comparable results. Two sprays of this combination, however, did not produce any significant improvement in yield over single spray.
= For 'Pusa Delicious' papaya, plant spacing of 1.6m x l.4m (4464 plants/ ha) was recommended for the best economic returns.
= In papaya, application of bio-fertilizers has significant influence on growth and productivity of plants. The best result was obtained with application of 100 % RDF + VAM (50g) + PSB (25g) + Azospirillum (50g/plant). Fifty percent reduction in RDF brought marked reduction in the fruit yield.
= Pusa 'Delicious' Papaya gave better performance when a manurial dose of 200 : 250 : 200 g NPK/ plant / year was applied as 25% FYM + 2kg Cake- + 1 kg cake-o-meal + 200 g each of N, P205 and K2O/plant/year to maintain good plant health helped in getting better yields with least PRSV infection.
= In roving surveys conducted in Samastipur, Muzaffarpur, Vaishali and Begusarai districts all papaya plantations were found to suffer from PSRV. The disease has now become a major limiting factor for successful cultivation of papaya in the state.
GUAVA
= Several crosses involving cultivars Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow-49 (Sardar) Chittidar, Red Fleshed and Apple Guava were made and some promising hybrids selected from these crosses are under advance stage of testing.
= Double Hedge Row System of planting with high density i.e. 453 plants/ha was found effective in increasing fruit yield in Guava cv. Allahabad Safeda.
= Two sprays of 15.0 per cent urea solution on Ambe Bahar flowering of guava (at 50% blooming stage) minimized the rainy season crop and induced winter season fruiting.
SAPOTA
= A superior variety named Rajendra Sapota-1 has been released as a seedling selection from cv. Cricket Ball. Its fruits are round, large in size measuring 7.5 cm to 8.0 cm in diameter. Pulp is sweet, gritty and granular with 46 seeds. The TSS is 18-19%. The average fruit weight ranges between 140 g and 160 g.
JAMUN
= After evaluating several promising jamun types, a variety named 'Rajendra Jamun-1' was released in 2007 from Sabour. This variety was found comparatively early, flowering profesely in March­-April and harvested in May-June. Big fruits (3.9 cm x 2.34 cm) having 12.86 gm fruit weight and 88.40 per cent pulp, have high T.S.S. (18.20 Brix) and lower acidity (0.31 %), which made it sweetest among all the types studied. The yield potential (450 kg/tree) was strikingly higher than other local types.
CITRUS FRUITS
= A varietal trial conducted with six genotypes showed superiority of 'Sai Sharbati'. However, a local genotype Gola Kagazi also showed compara­ble yield performance.
= Pummelo cv. Pink Flesh has been found very successful under north Bihar condition.
3.2 Vegetables
= Due to concerted research efforts on varietal improvement 14 improved varieties of vegetables crops like brinjal, tomato, chilli, okra and some cucurbitaceous vegetables have been released (see table). Some of them are described below :
= Rajendra Chamatkar : It is a Bottle gourd variety suitable for spring-summer season, Early in fruiting (69-70) days, prolific in bearing, fruit long, cylindrical, symmetrical, fruit weight (1.350 kg), resistant to powdery mildew and insect pests with an average yield of 175 q/ha. .
= Rajendra Nenua -1 : It is a sponge gourd variety suitable for both seasons, Early in fruiting (5 to 6 nodes),fruit long, greenish white, smooth and thick, resistant to fruit fly and fruit rot, seed colour-black, average yield 250 q/ha, better cooking quality and highly acceptable.
= Rajendra Parwal -1 : It is a pointed gourd variety suitable for diara land and upland too, fruit long, green with strips, tapering at both ends, average fruit weight 40 g, tolerant to fruit fly, average fruit yield 175 q/ha, suitable for long distance transport, cooking quality good and acceptable.
= Rajendra Parwal -2 : It is also a pointed gourd variety suitable for diara land and upland conditions, fruit drum shaped, white shining light green, self strip and soft, average fruit weight 30 g, tolerant to vine and fruit rot as well as fruit fly, better keeping quality, average yield of 160 q/ha
= Rajendra Annapurna : It is a brinjal variety suitable for kharif season, first picking after 90 days of transplanting, plants erect with compact habit, fruit solitary medium long, purple in colour, resistant to little leaf, wilt, phomopsis blight and shoot and fruit borer, average yield of 275 q/ha.
= Rajendra Baigan -2 : It is a brinjal variety suitable for sowing from May to September, early fruit picking (70 days), fruit green, solitary, shining, soft, resistant to wilt, shoot and fruit borer, tolerant to low temperature, average vied of 300 q/ha.
= Besides these varieties three varieties of chilli namely Sabour Angar , Sabour Anal, Sabour Arun ; one variety of tomato i.e. Sabour Prabha; one variety of okra named Vaishali Vadhu ; one variety of bitter gourd named Mithila Pasand and one more variety of bottle gourd named Dholi Safed have been released.
= In long group brinjal trials, variety KS-331 pro­duced significantly the highest yield of 289.85 q/ha. In round group of brinjal trials, highest yield of 312.11 q/ha was recorded in DBR-8.
= In long group of hybrid brinjal trials, Pusa Hybrid-5 significantly produced the maximum yield of 360.29 q/ha and in round group hybrid trials, Pusa Hybrid-6 significantly recorded the highest yield of351.22 q/ha.
= The variety KSG- 14 of sponge gourd produced the highest yield of 109.64 q/ha which was statistically at par with varieties Pusa Chikni (106.25 q/ha) and NSG- 1- 11 (103.77 q/ha).
= The hybrid BSS-405 of ridge gourd produced the highest yield of 95.40 q/ha which was statically at par with hybrids BSS-580, IRGH-023 and Sanchita.
= Chlorothalonil (0.3%) was statistically superior to other treatments as it recorded minimum disease intensity of leaf blight disease (5.24%) and maximum yield of 300.48 q/ha in bottle gourd.
= Seed treatment with Bavistin (1 g/kg), seedling dip in 0.05% for 30 minutes before transplanting followed by two sprays of 0.05% Bavistin has been found effective in controlling phomopsis blight and fruit rot diseases of Brinjal.
= Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 0.05 % followed by 4 sprays of Bavistin @ 0.05 % with first sprays at 15 DAT and later sprays after three week, were found to be the most effective against dieback disease in chillies.
= Soil solarization with polythene sheet and seed treatments with Trichoderma Viride @ 4 g/kg seed was found statistically superior, with minimum disease intensity ( 6.7 % ) of Fusarium wilt with highest yield of201.4 q/ha in cucurbits.
= Three sprays of mancozeb 0.25% mixed with 0.05% monocrotophos emerged out to be most effective for management of leaf disease of onion.
= Raised cultivation and 4 sprayings of copper fungicide @ 0.35% at 15 days interval was foun highly effective in reducing vine rot and fruit rot in pointed gourd.
= Five sprays of Cypermethrin at 20,30,50,65, and 80 DAT were suggested for management of borer in brinjal.
= Four sprayings of Cypermethrin (30 g a.i./ha) starting first spray 20 DAS followed by three sprays at 15 days intervals was suggested for management of insect pests in okra.
= Lambda-cyhalothrin (15 g a.i./ha) recorded minimum thrips population with highest yield of 295.65 q/ha in onion. Among neeO'1b(:lsed product, econeem (7.5 mill it) was foulid;tobe effective against thrips with an yield of 258.79 q/ha.
3.3 Potato
= Three varieties resistant to leaf blight have been released. Their brief description follows.
= Rajendra Alu­1: Red tuber, resistant to late blight disease, late maturity, 30-35 t/ha tuber yield
= Rajendra Alu-2: Red tuber, resistant of late blight disease, medium maturity 30 t/yield,
= Rajendra Alu-3: cream, resistant to late blight disease, medium maturity 30 t/yield.
= Genotypes MS/91-1326, JX-160, JX-90, JX-23, MS/89-60 for early (75 days) maturity and geno­types MS/89-1 095, JX-161, JX-214, 85-P670, 85­ P-718 for medium (90 days) maturity have been identified and are being evaluated for their performance.
= Use of soaking of tubers in solution containing 1 % Urea and sodium bicarbonate for 5 minutes + application of bio-fertilizers (Azotobactor + phosphobacteria) along with recommended dose of N:P:K as 150:80: 120 kg/ha was found better for higher yield of potato. Potato variety, Kufri Badsah recorded highest tuber yield of 26.5 t/ha by application of 185:100:145 kg/ha of N:P:K. However, true potato seed (TPS) varieties (HPS1/13, C3, 92-PT-27) responded to a higher level of 180 kg/ha potassium application
= Intercropping of two rows of garlic in between two rows of potato recorded higher net profit of Rs. 53,986.00. Other popular cropping systems with potato in north Bihar are : maize + potato and maize + potato + vegetables; elephant foot yam + potato.
3.4 Other Tuber crops
= At present a total of 1502 accessions of different tuber crops are being maintained at Dholi center. The crop wise number of accessions are: Sweet Potato (1177), Yam bean (137), winged bean (20) and lesser yam (10).Seven improved varieties of different crops have been developed by the university at Dholi . They are briefly described below.
= Rajendra Sakarkand - 5: Spreading, green leaves 4-6 cylindrical white tubers with ling neck, white flesh, tolerant to weevil and cercospora leaf blight suitable for two tier cropping. It matured in 105-120 days with average yield 20 t/ha.
= Rajendra Sakarkand - 35: Medium spreading, cylindrical dull white tuber with white flesh moderately tolerant to weevil and cercospora The maturity period from 105-110 days
= Rajendra Sakarkand - 43: Medium spreading Brownish skin and white flesh. Moderately tolerant to weevil and Cercospora, matured in 110-120 days with average yield of 20 t/ha,
= Rajendra Sakarkand - 47: Spreading, Cylindrical tuber, Purple skin and white flesh. Tolerant to weevil and Cercospora with average yield of 30 t/ha matured in 120-130 days.
= Rajendra Sakarkand - 92: Spreading 6-7 cylindrical tuber, Red skin and white flesh. suitable for flood prone area of North Bihar, early maturing variety (75-110 days) with average yield of 25 t/ha.
= Rajendra Yam Bean - 1: Shallow bulking, Round conical shape, early maturing (130-150 days), tolerant to major disease and pests , average yield 25 t/ha.
= Gajendra: An Amorphophallus strain introduced from Rajendra Nagar (A.P), compact with medium canopy, good quality, low acridity, medium maturity (240-270 days) with average yield of 35 t/ha.
= Rajendra Arvi – 1: A colocasia (Taro) variety with erect tall plant and drooping leaves, moderately susceptible to leaf blight, early maturing (160-180 days) with average yield of 18 t/ha and non-acrid flesh.
= Two tier cropping system: Planting of shallow (cross-4) and deep bulking varieties (RS-5) in alternate rows at row plant spacing of 30 x 20 cm, recorded 30 per cent more marketable tuber yield in comparison to monocropping of either of the varieties.
= The optimum planting time of sweet potato is mid of September and the crop is harvested after 120 days. The summer crop is planted during last week of January to mid February. In Diara land or river beds planting is recommended during November after the record of flood water.
= Tuber dry matter accumulation was studied with respect to commercial sweet potato cultivars and important cultivars were ranked in descending order as: Kalmegh > V-35 > RS-4 > Pusa Safed > RS-5 > CO-1.
= Tuber crops based cropping systems have been developed to provide an economically viable production system to the farmers.Popular cropping sequences are : Kharif maize - Sweet potato – Wheat – Moong, Kharif Maize - Sweet potato – Wheat, Kharif Maize - sweet potato – Moong, Kharif Maize – Yambean – wheat – Moong, Kharif Maize - Yambean – Onion.
= Intercropping of Arhar with Yambean (2:3) was found economical and adopted by the farmers of Bihar. Growing of Tuber crops viz., Amorphophallus and Colocasia in Litchi orchard have been found to be practically possible and economically viable in litchi growing areas of Bihar.
= Intercropping of cowpea with Amorphophallus was found most profitable with senergestic effect among themselves.
= Application of NPK @ 80:60:80 kg/ ha-1 along with compost @ 15 t / ha-1 has been recommended to be most remunerative for planting cultivation of Amorphophallus (size.: 500g) with a net return of Rs. l.5 lakh / ha-1.
= Application of 40 kg N ha-1 along with 2 kg Azospirillum ha -1 as vine dipping and 10 kg Azospirillum ha-1 as soil application recorded highest marketable tuber yield (29.5 t ha-1) of sweet potato.
= Mother tubers which do not either fetch good market price or less testy in consumption can be used as planting material and yield in such practice remains at par with that of using side tubers market price of which is much higher than mother tubers.
= Soil application of vermicompost@200kglha+50% recommended dose of NPK a recorded highest corm yield (48.7t/ha) which was on par with mustard cake @0.5 kg/pit+50% recommended dose of NPK (47.4 t/ha).
= The IPM module for Sweet potato weevil (Cylas jormicarius) consisting of vine treatment with dimethoate (0.03%) before planting + installation of pheromone trap @ one trap/lOO sq. m area from planting to 15 days after harvesting of the crop, was found economically viable, safe and acceptable by the farmers.
= A new insect pest spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata G. infesting and damaging Yam bean pods has been reported for the first time in 2002 at the Dholi center. The pest larvae feeds on development seeds inside the pod resulting into direct loss in seed yield (30.0%) for crops was grown for seed purpose.
= Mulching with Shisoo leaves suppresses weed population over weedicide (roundup) and gives higher corm yield.
= Dipping of Amorphophallus corm in Streptocycline (300 ppm) solution or cow dung slurry + Bavistin (2 g/lit. water) for 15.20 minutes before planting provides maximum protection against leaf blight.
= Spraying of 2, 4 - D (250 mg/100 liters of water) at 50 percent flowering stage of crop resulted in 80 percent deflowering.
= Yam bean seed extract (2 and 5%) gave highest mortality (30-70.0% & 50-98.3%) against 3rd instar larval of Bihar hairy caterpillar at 24 and 48 hrs after feeding with negligible leaf damage.
= Barrier crops of yam bean with sweet potato at 2:1 ratio should better performance in recording lowest tuber infestation (12:3%), weevil population (14.9 /kg infested tubers) and highest marketable tuber yield (18.5 t/ha) as against soil crop and chemical control.
= Soil application of neem cake @10 t/ha or Metarrhizium anisoplial @11.25 kg/ha should better performance in minimizing weevil infested tubers (4.5-5.2%) and gave highest marketable tuber yield (17.6 t/ha) as against untreated control Le., 27% and 12.2 t/ha.
= Pre sowing soil application of neem cake @20 g/ha afforded maximum protection (8.5%) to sweet potato tuber against termite as compared to untreated control (31.9%).
= The minimum color rot incidence (4.0%) was observed in plot receiving healthy planting material +corm treated with Trichoderma viridal at 5g!kg + soil application of neem cake @250 g/pit followed by one spray of neem gold @0.5% at 60 days after planting and gave highest yield (42.2 t/ha).
3.5 Spices
= A field gene bank has been established at Dholi (Bihar) and a total of 325 accessions of 7 major spices are being maintained in this bank. Seven high yielding varieties of different spices have been evolved at Dholi. They have been widely adopted by the growers due to their high yield potentials, better quality and resistance to pests and diseases. The improved varieties are briefly described below:
= Rajendra Swati : A coriander variety, fine seeded, yielding 18-20 q/ha registering 30-31 % increased seed yield over local. It is rich in essen­tial oil content, and resistant to stem-gall disease.
= Rajendra Kanti: A fenugreek variety with golden yellow seeds, resistant to Cercospora leaf ­spot with yield potentials of 15- 18 q/ha and 40­42% higher yield over local variety. It is widely accepted by the farmers and has a greater cover­age in Bihar and other states. It also builds up-soil­ health because of profuse nodulation.
= Rajendra Sonia: A short duration variety (225 days) of turmeric showing yield potentials of 400­500 q/ha registering 26 per cent higher yield over local variety. It is resistant to leaf-blotch disease and contains 8.5 % curcumin. It is widely grown in Bihar and other states of India.
= Rajendra Saurabh: A high yielding fennel variety with 27% higher yield over local check. It is bold seeded and particularly suitable for alkali soils. Fairly tolerant to drought conditions, so has high adaptability to different agro-climatic conditions.
= Rajendra Shyama: A first envolved high yielding Black-cumin variety with yield potentials of 10-12 q/ha. It is resistant to wilt disease. It can be grown successfully after harvesting paddy crop.
= Rajendra Mani: A high yielding Ajawain (omum) variety specially suitable for 'Diaro land' areas, it has yield potential of 8- 10 q/ha and profusely aromatic due to presence of high essential oils in its fine seeds. Widely adapted by the farmers in Bihar and other states.
= Rajendra Abha: It is a high yielding variety of 'Champa Methi' having 140 days maturity, being a dual purpose variety i.e. leaf & seeds, it is also suitable for calcareous soils of North Bihar. It produces seeds yield of 7-8 q/ha, while, yield of green-leaves ranges between 8-10 q/ha. It is resistant to wilt and Cercospora leaf-spot diseases.
= Turmeric and ginger sown on 23rd May and mulched with Shisoo leaves produced the highest yield. The crop sown during June and July was found to be poor yielder. In case of turmeric, daughter rhizomes of 25 g size sown at the spacing of 30cm x 20 cm gave highest yield of fresh rhizomes and generated maximum profit per unit area. Seed-rhizomes of 20g size sown at 30cm x 20 cm spacing produced the highest rhizome yield of ginger.
= First week of October proved to be the opti­mum sowing time for coriander. Crop sown on first October produced 13.89q/ha seed yield and its productivity markedly declined in late sown conditions. The yield of essential oil was maximum (1027 kg/ha) in crop sown on 1 st October.
= Fenugreek sown on 30th Oct. yielded highest as compared to 1 st Oct., 15th Nov. and 15th Dec. sown crops. Fennel sown in nursery during first week of Sept. and transplanted during first week of Oct. regis­tered its superiority over other late sowing dates. In intercropping trial, fennel + radish was found to be more remunerative per unit area as com­pared to other combinations.
= In a fertilizer trial on ginger it was observed that 60 kg N, 60 kg P20s and 120 kg K20 gave highest yield of fresh rhizomes/ha. Turmeric yielded highest when 150 kg N, 50 kg P20s and 100 kg K20 was applied/ha in calcare­ous soils of Dholi. A fertilizer dose consisting of 60 kg N, 40 kg P20s and 20 kg K20 per hectare produced higher yield of coriander 15.25 q/ha when grown as irrigated crop in calcareous soils of Dholi, Bihar against the control yield of 11.08 q/ha.
= Two foliar sprays of iron sulphate @ 1 % produced highest yield of ginger cv.Nadia under Dholi conditions. Effect of different micro-nutrients viz. zinc, copper, iron, molybdenum, boron, manganese and Tracel­-2 on coriander was studied during rabi season. The mean yield data revealed that coriander responded well to foliar application of copper, zinc and molybdenum with regard to fruit yield as compared to rest of the treatments and control. The maximum increase in fruit yield over control was 28.00% under copper, followed by 23.21 % and 14.12% under zinc and molybdenum treatments respectively. This essential oil yield was 7.56 kg/ha under copper; 7.27 kg/ha and 6.43 kg/ha under zinc and molybdenum, respec­tively, while lowest essential oil yield of 5.61 kg/ha was recorded with the control.
= Experimental results of fertilizer trials on fenugreek indicated that 40 kg N and P205 and 20 kg K20 per hectare produced maximum seed yield. Application of 60 kg N, 40 kg P205 and 20 kg K20 produced higher yield of fennel cv. Rajendra Saurabh. Both Omum and Nigella registered highest yield at 60 kg N, 30 kg P205 and 20 kg K20 per hectare.
= Tree spices like Nutmeg, Cinnamon, Bay leaf, Black leaf, Clove, long pepper, large cardamom were grown successfully at Dholi. However, the fruit setting was only up to 30 per cent only in large cardamom.
= Surveys were undertaken to identify organisms causing leaf-spot, stem-rot and rhizome-rot of ginger and turmeric. In varietal trial on turmeric, six varieties viz. G.L. Puram I, II, Vontimitta, Duggirala, Armoor and A. P. 317 were found resistant against Taphrina sp; whereas four varieties were found to be against Collectotricum sp.
= Coriander was found to be severely affected with Protomyces microsporus, Fusarium oxysporum and Oidium sp, whereas Fenugreek with Cercospora traversianas, Erysiphe polygoni and Perenopospora trigonella and Cumin with Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxyporum. The seeds were found affected with Aspergillus flavus, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium oxysporum in almost all the samples.
= In natural conditions out of thirteen varieties of coriander screened against stem-gall (Protomyces macroporus) only three varieties, U.D.179, U.D.20 and Rajendra Swati were found free. These varieties were found to be resistant, when sown on normal date of sowing. In case of fungicidal control against stem-gall of coriander, Thiram @ 2.5 g per kg seeds was found to be effective as seed treatment.
= In natural conditions, out of 12 varieties of fenugreek, only 2 varieties U.M.35 and Rajendra Kanti showed resistant to Cercosporea leaf spot, Similar results were obtained continuously for last five years. In case of control of Cercospora leaf spot of fenugreek two sprays of Bavistin 0.05% was found to be effective in controlling the disease.
3.6 Betelvine
= All together 20 germplasm/cultivars were artifi­cially screened against two major diseases of betelvine i.e. Anthracnose and Phytophthora rot by inoculating healthy plants with pure culture of the causal pathogens. Only four germplasm / cultivars i.e. Calcuttia Bangia with long internode, Ghana Ghatte, Kapoori Bihar and Hara Patta showed moderately resistant reaction to both the pathogens whereas remaining 16 has moderately susceptible to susceptible reactions.
= Epidemiological studies of Phytophthora leaf rot caused by Phytophthora sp. and anthracnose disease incited by several species of Colletotrichum such as capsici, gloeosporioides and piperis with Bangia variety of betelvine were done. Important contributing environmental components for Phytophthora leaf rot disease incidence and index were maximum relative humidity above 90 per cent and minimum temper­ature 25.2 to 28.1 °c which prevailed during the period of observation seems to have accounted for maximum share in the total variation of disease.
= The important contributing environmental elements for anthracnose disease incidence and sisease index were maximum relative humidity above 90 per cent maximum and minimum temperature ranging between 34.S-2S.2°C during the period of observation which accounted for lions share in the total variation of disease.
= Sanitation integrated with one soil drench of Bordeaux mixture (1 %) followed by one soil application of bio-agent (Trichoderma viride) inoculated in 5.00 kg oil cake/ha after 30 days of first drenching of Bordeaux mixture (1 %) after 60 days of first drenching of Bordeaux mixture (l %) was found significantly superior to other treat­ments in respect of reducing disease incidence of leaf rot, foot rot and thereby increas­ing the yield of marketable leaves per hectare. This treatment was found the most productive and produced Rs. 2.00 on investment of rupee one.
= Fifty g unit inoculums per 10 kg of oil cake had maximum number of spores of Trichoderma viride and such inoculated cake may be used for 60 days of inoculation when packed in polythene bag at temperature range of 21 -350C.
= Biofertilizers alone or in combination with inor­ganic fertilizers had significant effect on elonga­tion of vine, number of consumable leaves per hectare, fresh weight of 100 leaves and leaf area of betelvine in addition to nutrient content in plants, nutrient uptake by the paints and finally soil nutrient status. However, vermicompost @ 12 t/ha significantly increased the bio mass of the leaves.
= Integrated crop management of betelvine wherein IPM and INM were taken into consideration, it was found that 4 application of Trichoderma accompa­nied with sanitation and protecting the crop with recommended dose of insecticide was found at par with 3 drenches of Bordeaux mixture (1 %) followed by 6 sprays of Bordeaux mixture (O.S%) in terms of vine growth, number of consumable leaves per hectare, fresh weight of 100 leaves, shelf life, per cent disease index and bio mass of leaf including dry matter yield.
= Application of Bio-dynamics or EM (Effective micro-organism) alone or in combination with each other supplemented with nitrogen @ 100 kg/ha in the form of FYM was found at par with 200 kg Nil 00 kg P20s and 100 kg K2O/ha. BD + EM with 100 kg N/ha in the form of FYM was found significantly superior to other treatments pertain­ing to productivity of betel leaves i.e. no. of leaves/ha, biomass of leaves and leaf area. It had also profound effect on nutrient content of Plant, nutrient uptake by plants and finally nutrient status of the soil.
4. Future Projections and Research Needs
Fruits and vegetables largely contribute to solve the food and nutritional problem of people. In coming years increase in the fruit and vegetable consumption is inevitable due to better standard of living, improved literacy and increased per capita income. The demand from processing industry is also expected to increase substan­tially. It is anticipated that by the year 2025 the total requirement of fruits in the state would be around 5.52 million tones. This clearly implies that the current production level has to be increased at the rate of about 1.5 lakh tonnes per annum. Thus the average productivity has to be raised from 10.0 t/ha to 15 t/ha, because there would be very little increase in area under fruits due to pressure of increasing production of cereals, pulses and other crops. Likewise requirement of vegetables by 2025 would be approximately 11.55 million tonnes which necessitates enhancement in present productivity rate of 15.35 t/ha to at least 20t/ha. Obviosly, the need of the hour is to enhance their production to surplus level for sending to local and distant markets inside and outside the country.
Besides growing traditional vegetable and fruit crops, the farmers are now turning on to nontraditional crops e.g. aromatic and medicinal plants, flowers, spices, new species of fruits and vegetables. Fruits like rambutan, longan, avocado, loquat, persimmon, passion fruit and mangosteen need to be introduced in the state. There is an urgent need to standardize the production technology of these crops under prevailing agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions of Bihar. Adoption of the new crops will be faster if the production technology suits the local situation and circumstances and income from them is higher.
Problem solving has been the primary task of research. It is generally perceived that all research endeavors should aim at greater quantity-quality advantages in growing crops. Although this can be achieved through breeding and ensuring better biological and physiological performance of the crop, there is an urgent need to integrate production and supply chain systems. It is required to recognize and strengthen inter-related services to make these systems functional in true sense. Promotion and marketing need more emphasis particularly for commercializing new crops/products. Perishable nature of products calls for immediate attention to the rapid transport system and good packaging and storage infrastructure. It is, therefore, imperative that a long term strategy is worked out to pursue specific result oriented goals for tangible results.
5. Priority R & D Areas
Improvement in income generation and well-being of those engaged in horticultural production and marketing should be the basis for assigning priority to a research or development project. Achieving maximum productivity of a crop depends on the management package in which each and every input is applied at optimum level. This is possible only through sincere R & D efforts. The priority R & D areas are:
o Collection, evaluation and conservation of germplasm for crop improvement programmes and Identification of suitable donor parents for key stresses and other traits of breeder's interest.
o Using biotechnological advances for yield and quality improvement and engineering resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses.
o Standardization /or refinement of agro-techniques for optimum production and development of sustainable cropping systems with horticultural crops for optimum use of resources.
o Understanding eco-physiological and economic aspects of these crops with reference to changing climatic patterns.
o Encouraging recycling of resources and degradable wastes and stewardship of looking after the soil health, its fertility and stability.
o Finding measures to reduce production cost to offer a better competitive price to buyers.
o Survey, investigation and management of new as well as chronic diseases and insect pests.
o Multiplication and distribution of disease free planting materials/seeds of improved varieties.
o Identification of constraints which limit production stability and dissemination of new knowledge on the production and marketing to the farming community.
o Searching alternative uses of a horticultural produce and making some new innovative products.
o Capacity building through creating modern warehousing, transportation and marketing facilities.
o Establishing brand image through improving product quality and packaging standards.
6. Conclusions
Agriculture is the mainstay of Bihar’s economy and horticulture plays a pre-eminent role in shaping destiny of its agrarian community. A large variety of fruits and vegetable are grown and marketed successfully in the state. In recent times progressive farmers are attracted to cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants, floriculture and some new vegetables. The production technologies of traditionally grown fruits and vegetables have been standardized and improved varieties are also available. Technologies to grow aromatic and medicinal plants and some vegetables like squash snow-peas, and fruits like longan, avocado or mangosteen are yet to be standardized and problems coming in the way of their production and marketing need to be solved through R and D efforts.
At present research organizations in the state are functioning independently. There is no integration or co-ordination for making unified attempt to tackle problems related to production and marketing of horticultural crops. Further, available research funds in the university and other research centers are gradually shrinking due to budgetary cuts and high inflation rate and thus research is now becoming costlier than earlier times. There is a need to public-private partnership to lessen the hardship in research funding. Considering the large number of crops and their highly perishable nature allocations of fund for research require appreciable enhancement.
The pressing R & D issues are : development of technologies for higher production at lower costs, improving quality and diversity of horticultural crops, developing infrastructure and capacity building for efficient post-harvest handling, establishment of farmer trade associations or Co-operatives, reorganization of the marketing system and creation of data base and market intelligence for analysis of consumption and pricing trend. Accordingly the research areas that enjoy most of the resource appropriations are : management of plant genetic resources in the gene banks; breeding better quality, higher yielding strains through bio-technological and conventional approaches; sustainable (integrated) production approach for better utilization of natural resources, product diversification through processing; and improvement in storage and improvement in storage and marketing techniques. Horticulture in the state has enormous potential and a bright future. It will continue to be in the forefront of agricultural activities because it meets not only the primary needs of food, health and the well being of people but also beautifies our surrounding and controls the environmental pollution.
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